The whole idea of the “escape hatch” for tax treaties is an excellent way of explaining how and when tax treaty law applies in different circumstances. Importantly, the U.S. federal government cannot deny an individual (or presumably a company either) from properly applying the law of a tax treaty – even if they “gave [an] untimely notice of his treaty position “. See further comments at the end of this post and the District Court’s opinion here – Aroeste v United States – Order (Nov 2023). Meanwhile, see below the 22 countries from where global readers viewed Tax-Expatriation.com during the first full week of 2024.

Below is the list of 22 countries (including the United States) from where readers hailed, who read Tax-Expatriation.com during the first week of 2024. All, but Brazil, Croatia, Nigeria, the United Arab Emirates, Colombia, Kenya and Bermuda have income tax treaties with the United States.

This means that all other individuals are connected with the following 14 countries that have tax treaties with the United States:

• Mexico
• India
• Canada
• United Kingdom
• Switzerland
• Australia
• China
• Spain
• Turkey
• Germany
• Japan
• Romania
• Portugal
• Netherlands

Further, all individuals who might have never formally abandoned their lawful permanent residency (“green card”), maybe never filed specific IRS tax forms, and yet reside in one of these fourteen (14) treaty countries could be eligible for the application and the specific benefits of international income tax treaty law. This, along the lines of the decision in Aroeste v United States (Nov. 2023). In addition, there could be other tax treaty benefits applicable to those individuals in these fourteen countries depending upon where are their assets, what type of income they have, where does the income come from, and where do they reside.

The tax treaty rights discussed here are established by law, as elucidated by the Federal District Court in Aroeste v United States (Nov. 2023). The Court determined that the IRS cannot simply assert an individual’s ineligibility for treaty law provisions based solely on the failure to file specific IRS forms within the government-defined “timely” period. The Court emphasized that there is no automatic waiver of treaty benefits as a matter of law, while acknowledging: “. . . Aroeste gave untimely notice of his treaty position. . .” For specific excerpts from the opinion, please refer to the highlighted portions below. To access the complete opinion, please consult Aroeste v United States – Order (Nov 2023).

* * * * * * * * *

B. Whether Aroeste Did Not Waive the Benefits of the Treaty Applicable to Residents of Mexico and Notified the Secretary of Commencement of Such Treatment.

To establish Mexican residency under the Treaty, and thus avoid the reporting requirements of “United States persons,” Aroeste must have filed a timely income tax return as a non-resident (Form 1040NR) with a Form 8833, Treaty-Based Return Position Case 3:22-cv-00682-AJB-KSC Document 90 Filed 11/20/23 PageID.2722 Page 8 of 17 9 22-cv-00682-AJB-KSC Disclosure Under Section 6114 or 7701(b). Indeed, Aroeste did not submit Form 8833 to notify the IRS of his desired treaty position for the years 2012 and 2013 until October 12, 2016, when he submitted an amended tax return for both years at issue. (Id.) The Government asserts that because Aroeste did not timely submit these forms, he cannot establish that he notified the IRS of his desire to be treated solely as a resident of Mexico and not waive the benefits of the Treaty. (Id. at 4.) The Government relies upon United States v. Little, 828 Fed. App’x 34 (2d Cir. 2020) (“Little II”), a criminal appeal in which the court held a lawful permanent resident of a foreign country was a “‘resident alien’ or ‘person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States’ with an obligation to file an FBAR.” Id. at 38 (quoting 31 C.F.R. § 1010.350(a), (b)(2)).

In response, Aroeste asserts that while he agrees with the Government that I.R.C. § 6114 requires disclosure of a treaty position, he disagrees as to the consequences for a taxpayer’s failure to timely file the disclosure. (Doc. No. 75-1 at 6.) While the Government asserts the failure to timely file Forms 1040NR and 8833 deprives individuals of the Treaty benefits provided, Aroeste argues instead that I.R.C. § 6712 provides explicit consequences for failure to comply with § 6114. Specifically, § 6712 states that “[i]f a taxpayer fails to meet the requirements of section 6114, there is hereby imposed a penalty equal to $1,000 . . . on each such failure.” I.R.C. § 6712(a). Based on the foregoing, Aroeste argues the taxpayer does not lose the benefits or application of the treaty law.1 (Doc. No. 75-1 at 6.) In United States v. Little, 12-cr-647 (PKC), 2017 WL 1743837, at *5 (S.D. N.Y. 1 Aroeste further asserts that published agency guidance, letter rulings, and technical advice support his position. (Doc. No. 75-1 at 7.) For example, in 2007, an IRS agent sought advice from IRS Counsel asking, “Do we have legal authority to deny a tax treaty because Form 8833 is not attached or the treaty is claimed on the wrong Form (1040EZ or 1040)?” Legal Advice Issued to Program Managers During 2007 Document Number 2007-01188, IRS. IRS Counsel responded, “No, you cannot deny treaty benefits if the taxpayer is entitled to them. You may impose a penalty of $1,000 under section 6712 of the Code on an individual who is obligated to file and does not.” Id. As to this, the Court finds it has no precedential value under I.R.C. § 6110(k)(3), which states that “a written determination may not be used or cited as precedent.” See Amtel, Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 598, 602 (1994) (“The [Internal Revenue] Code specifically precludes [plaintiff] and the court from using or citing a technical advice memorandum as precedent.”) Case 3:22-cv-00682-AJB-KSC Document 90 Filed 11/20/23 PageID.2723 Page 9 of 17 10 22-cv-00682-AJB-KSC May 3, 2017) (“Little I”), a criminal case for the plaintiff’s willful failure to file tax returns, the court stated the plaintiff’s same argument “that the failure to take a Treaty position can result only in a financial penalty also lacks merit. 26 U.S.C. § 6712(c) expressly states that ‘[t]he penalty imposed by this section shall be in addition to any other penalty imposed by law.’” (emphasis added).

I have been consulted over the years by other taxpayers which are cited now as published decisions by the government and the Federal District Court (Southern District of California). These cases are referenced and cited in my own most recent case of Aroeste v United States (Nov. 2023).

However, in Little I, the plaintiff never attempted to take a treaty position. Next, in Shnier v. United States, 151 Fed. Cl. 1, 21 (2020), the court denied the plaintiffs’ claims for relief based on tax treaties because they failed to disclose a treaty based position on their tax returns pursuant to I.R.C. § 6114 “and did not attempt to cure this omission in their briefing[.]” Although the plaintiffs in Shnier were naturalized U.S. citizens who attempted to recover their income taxes under I.R.C § 1297, the court’s brief discussion of I.R.C. § 6114 in relation to a treaty-based position is instructive that an untimely notice of a treaty position does not bar the individual from taking such position. Moreover, in Pekar v. C.I.R., 113 T.C. 158 (1999), the court noted that a taxpayer who fails to disclose a treaty-based position as required by § 6114 is subject to the $1,000 penalty, but stated “there is no indication that this failure estops a taxpayer from taking such a position.” Id. at 161 n.5.2 The Court agrees with Aroeste.

Although Aroeste gave untimely notice of his treaty position, the Court finds this does not waive the benefits of the Treaty as asserted by the Government. Rather, I.R.C. § 6712 provides the consequences for failure to comply with I.R.C. § 6114, namely a penalty of $1,000 for each failure to meet § 6114’s requirements of disclosing a treaty position.

* * * * * * * * *

For individuals living in any of these 14 tax treaty countries (or any of the total 67 income tax treaty countries), the key takeaway is that, based on their specific circumstances, they might be eligible to leverage the international tax treaty principles outlined in the Aroeste v United States case (Nov. 2023). The forthcoming post will pose questions for consideration by the potentially millions of individuals affected by these rules of law.

Successful athletes, singers, writers, actors, artists and other talented individuals from outside the United States rarely consider becoming a U.S. citizen unless they plan on living permanently in the U.S. for the rest of their lives. The reason can often be found in how the U.S. federal tax regime (particularly estate and gift taxes) can apply on their worldwide assets and worldwide income. These talented individuals typically generate income from around the world, most every major country and therefore will have business and investment interests around the world.

A non-citizen artist or entertainer can usually enter into the U.S. for performances and employment opportunities on a range of visa options. For instance, many of these individuals can typically get an O-1 visa, because of their extraordinary abilities.

The petitioner must provide evidence demonstrating your extraordinary ability in the sciences, arts, business, education, or athletics, or extraordinary achievement in the motion picture industry.

USCIS – O-1 Visa: Individuals with Extraordinary Ability or Achievement.

If such an individual who has great earning power can easily enter the U.S. when they wish, hence being able to always control their income tax residency status, why would they ever want become a U.S. citizen? Maybe for political or family reasons? See, a prior post explaining the origins of U.S. citizenship based taxation – The U.S. Civil War is the Origin of U.S. Citizenship Based Taxation on Worldwide Income for Persons Living Outside the U.S. ***Does it still make sense?

Indeed, famous U.S. artists have been among those who have renounced citizenship. See, a 2015 post – Tina Turner – Famous People Who Renounced U.S. Citizenship. May her Soul Rest in Peace –

See also, prior posts regarding famous artists and entertainers – including Elizabeth Taylor, Li Lianjie, Yul Brynner, among others who renoucned U.S. citizenship.
* Li Lianjie – Famous Former U.S. Citizens – Born in Beijing, China (“Jet Li”)

• Famous Americans who Renounced U.S. Citizenship – Elizabeth Taylor!

• Famous Former U.S. Citizens – Oscar-winning actor Yul Brynner (Tax Rates Then and Now)

Back to British knighthoods and damehoods. British nationals can receive these honors from the British Crown, as did Paul McCartney from the Queen in 1997. Individuals who are British nationals and citizens of commonwealth countries (e.g., Canada, Australia and New Zealand) are eligible for these UK Honors. However, it appears that U.S. citizens (who are not also nationals of the UK or a commonwealth country), will not be eligible for these formal UK honors. There are many honorary UK honors granted to various U.S. citizens over the last several decades, including –

• George H W Bush GCB
• Dwight D Eisenhower GCB
• Bill Gates KBE
• Melinda Gates DBE
• Mark Getty KBE
• Paul Getty KBE
• Billy Graham KBE
• J Edgar Hoover KBE
• Bob Hope KBE
• Angelina Jolie DCMG
• Ralph Lauren KBE
• Yehudi Menuhin, Baron Menuhin KBE
• André Previn KBE
• Ronald Reagan GCB
• Dame Marjorie Scardino DBE
• Steven Spielberg KBE

Paul McCartney would presumably only have to forfeit his knighthood (if at all) if he were to renounce his British nationality. The UK government provides a detailed guide of how to renounce, and in some cases “resume” British nationality. This resumption of citizenship concept does not exist in the United States. The UK guide to renounce British citizenship or nationality can be found on their website – here (Give up (renounce) British citizenship or nationality). It would be comparable to the U.S. Department of State, Foreign Affairs Manual – 7 FAM 1260 – RENUNCIATION OF U.S. CITIZENSHIP ABROAD.

The British version is a lot more user friendly.

This post is written simply because so many U.S. citizens residing overseas are reasonably confused about the complexity of U.S. tax law.  The mere requirement to file U.S. income tax returns for those overseas often comes as a great surprise.  My non-U.S. born wife is an exception (as she also lives outside the U.S.) simply because I have repeatedly told her for our 20 some years of marriage. 

Some in the IRS erroneously think U.S. citizens residing overseas do and should understand U.S. tax law.  I posed one simple scenario to a very sophisticated IRS attorney not very long ago who specializes in the FATCA rules.

Her view is (hopefully was) that U.S. citizens throughout the world know or should know the U.S. tax laws because the instructions to IRS Form 1040 are clear.

This thought knocked me off my figurative chair onto the floor!  Smack. 

My surprise is based upon my own experience working with individuals and families throughout the world, in numerous countries.  I have noticed a number of notions, based upon these andectodal experiences as follows:

1. A minority of U.S. citizens (unless they lived most of their lives in the U.S. and recently moved overseas as an “expatriate”) have no real basic idea of how the U.S. federal tax laws work; let alone to their assets and income in their country of residence.  See USCs and LPRs Living Outside the U.S. – Key Tax and BSA Forms
2. There are indeed plenty of immigrant U.S. residents (certainly less than 50% by my own experience – especially when concepts of PFICs and foreign tax credits start being discussed) who even understand the basics of U.S. international tax law.
3. If they reside in an English speaking country that has relatively strong family or historical ties to the U.S. (e.g., England, Ireland, Scotland, and Canada, etc.) they are likely to have a better idea of the U.S. federal tax laws, but still the majority don’t know key concepts.  See, Nuances of FBAR – Foreign Bank Account Report Filings – for USCs and LPRs living outside the U.S.
4. Even those in English speaking countries that have less historical or family ties to the U.S. have a lesser understanding (e.g., New Zealand, Australia, Kenya, South Africa, India, etc.).
5. Those who do not speak English know even less about U.S. tax laws and how they apply to them.
6. Many individuals who learn of these requirements overseas are sometimes driven to great despair.  The message they receive is not a correct one under the law in my view: as they read IRS materials (for instance, see FAQs 5, 6 and and former 51.2 from the Offshore Voluntary Disclosure Program Frequently Asked Questions and Answers 2014) and come to the conclusion they will soon be going to jail, criminally prosecuted or otherwise be subject to tens of thousands of dollars worth of penalties for their failure to file a range of tax forms.
7. Literally, sometimes as a tax lawyer I feel more like a psychologist, when these individuals come to me saying they can’t sleep, they can’t eat, they are seeing a cardiologist for high blood pressure, etc. and even in a most extreme case they thought suicide was a solution.  See, How is the offshore voluntary disclosure program really working? Not well for USCs and LPRs living overseas.
8. Individuals around the world (even tax professionals) and certainly laypeople, are not commonly reading TaxAnalysts (nor would they subscribe) or other tax professional publications that explain many of the intricacies of U.S. tax laws.
9. Learning and understanding U.S. tax laws, including just the basics, requires a great deal of time, aptitude for nuances and details, literacy, patience and a level of aptitude for such matters that simply escape many people around the world (most I would say).  see, “PFICs” – What is a PFIC – and their Complications for USCs and LPRs Living Outside the U.S.  I can relate to this personally, as I am an international tax professional (indeed I even studied a post graduate law course outside the U.S. in a non-English language), have spent my entire professional career of more than 25 years in the area, and yet only generally have a very superficial understanding of tax laws throughout the countries where I am dealing with clients.  I don’t try to understand the details of those laws. 
10. Many people are angry and frustrated (justifiably so, in my view, in many cases) after learning they are subject to these rules.  See comment above about being a psychologist.  Plus, USCs and LPRs residing outside the U.S. – and IRS Form 8938. In addition, see, Taxpayer Advocate Report on Burdens of Benign Taxpayers who Make Mistakes

Back to the intelligent IRS tax attorney.  My question to her was:  “Why would you, as a U.S. born individual not be reviewing the tax laws, tax forms and tax instructions of the country where your parents were born prior to immigrating to the U.S.?”  I asked:  “Are you not reviewing those laws in the original language of your parents (not English, but the other language of your parent’s country) to understand what tax forms and returns you should be filing?”

The IRS attorney’s response was:  “What:  of course, I am not reviewing such tax forms or filing information or tax laws, as I would have no tax obligations in that foreign country where I have no income, no assets or no bank or financial accounts!”

My follow-up question was a simple one:  “Don’t you realize that U.S. federal tax law (Title 26) and financial bank reporting laws (Title 31) do just that!”

“Hmm she paused: how can that be?”  I don’t recall if she said this out loud, or just said it with her puzzled expression.

The answer of course is that through citizenship (including derivative citizenship through a U.S. parent even though the child never spent a single day of residence in the U.S., let alone received any income or assets); that same individual in the mirror position as that IRS attorney is subject to a host of U.S. federal tax and financial reporting laws.  See, Sir Winston Churchill – Famous People. Did he become a U.S. citizen at birth via “derivative citizenship”? Did he file U.S. income tax returns?

Here is the big disconnect.    It’s not just among the ill-informed or those lesser educated on the fine points of law.  I had the pleasure this week along with my wife to host two educated, worldly and engaging individuals who have been married some 20 years together.  They are well read and highly educated.  Both are lawyers by training, one practices law that often pushes him fairly deeply into the tax law and his wife is a wonderful and experienced judge in the California state courts.

I asked them (as I like to ask people around the world) if they had ever heard or understood that the U.S. federal tax law imposes taxation and very detailed reporting on the worldwide income and assets of U.S. citizens who reside outside the U.S.  I discussed Cook v. Tait and the U.S. Civil War a bit.  See both Supreme Court’s Decision in Cook vs. Tait and Notification Requirement of Section 7701(a)(50) and The U.S. Civil War is the Origin of U.S. Citizenship Based Taxation on Worldwide Income for Persons Living Outside the U.S. ***Does it still make sense?

All of it was a great surprise to them! They were in utter shock and both are residents in the U.S., highly educated in the law and are like the vast majority of the world, including U.S. citizens who reside outside the U.S.

This is the common response for many U.S. citizens residing overseas.

As previous posts have mentioned, U.S. citizens (USCs) residing overseas can only comply with U.S. tax law and FATCA certifications if they have a social security number (SSN).  See, U.S. Citizens Overseas who Wish to Renounce without a Social Security Number will Necessarily be a “Covered Expatriate”

See key excerpts of the paper titled URGENT NEED FOR U.S. CITIZENS RESIDING OUTSIDE THE U.S. TO BE ABLE TO OBTAIN A TAXPAYER IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (“TIN”) OTHER THAN A SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER  that explains this dilemma:

This dilemma affects numerous USCs throughout the world, which is now compounded by the certification and reporting requirements of USCs and third parties, such as FFIs and NFFEs^[2] under the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (“FATCA”).

* * *

The regulations provide the specific rule that all USCs must have a SSN^[1] as their TIN. There are no general exceptions in the regulations to the requirement that a USC must have a SSN as their TIN.

This regulatory requirement specifically directs the USC to the forms that must be completed and filed with the SSA, in order to obtain a SSN, as follows:^[2] 

(1) Social security number.   Any individual required to furnish a social security number pursuant to paragraph (b) of this section shall apply for one, if he has not done so previously, on Form SS-5, which may be obtained from any Social Security Administration or Internal Revenue Service office. He shall make such application far enough in advance of the first required use of such number to permit issuance of the number in time for compliance with such requirement. The form, together with any supplementary statement, shall be prepared and filed in accordance with the form, instructions, and regulations applicable thereto, and shall set forth fully and clearly the data therein called for. Individuals who are ineligible for or do not wish to participate in the benefits of the social security program shall nevertheless obtain a social security number if they are required to furnish such a number pursuant to paragraph (b) of this section. [emphasis added]

These Title 26 regulations discuss individuals requesting forms from “any Social Security Administration or Internal Revenue Service office” which clearly implies that the SSA and the IRS have offices overseas.

Unfortunately, this is not the case, as the IRS recently announced it is closing its full-time walk-in offices in London, Frankfurt and Paris, as the office in Beijing, China was closed in 2014.^[3] Similarly, the SSA has no overseas offices, but does have limited field office operations in Canada, the British Virgin Islands and Samoa.^[4] 

Therefore, it is clear that the above regulations are speaking to individuals who reside and live in the U.S., and not USCs residing overseas when it requires USCs to “ . . . make such application far enough in advance of the first required use of such number to permit issuance of the number in time for compliance with such requirement. ^[5]

These Title 26 regulations require the application be made well in advance of any tax filing requirements are not realistic for USCs residing overseas as is explained herein. This author has seen the issuance of SSNs take more than 6 months, even when the USC could have an interview in their country of residence.

More importantly, there are very few countries (only 17) where in-person interviews can even be held. See, discussion below.

USCs who have lived most, if not all of their lives outside the U.S., commonly do not have a SSN. The procedural requirements imposed by the SSA to obtain a SSN in these cases are complicated and unrealistic for USCs living overseas.[6] This author has seen cases where USCs residing overseas have even spent the money and resources and time to travel to the U.S. to apply for a SSN, yet were turned away by the SSA, due to various procedural requirements which were not satisfied.  

Often times obtaining a SSN overseas is nearly impossible, depending upon which country and where within that country the USC resides.    

A.            Obtaining a SSN Outside the US by a USC – Much More than Just Filing SSA Form SS-5

The SSA does not have offices outside the U.S. although they have a so-called “Office of International Operations.”[7] The focus of OIO is the administration of social security benefits, not obtaining SSNs for USCs residing overseas. Since the SSA is assisted by the U.S. Department of State (who are not SSN experts), USCs have to rely upon various U.S. embassies and consulate offices around the world, as they try to obtain a SSN.

B.            Tax Return Filing Requirements – Minimum Gross Income

Any USC individual is obligated under the U.S. federal tax law to file a federal income tax return IRS Form 1040 if they meet minimum thresholds of income. For the tax year 2015, the thresholds are low, and are reached once the gross income is at least the sum of (i) the “exemption” amount (currently $4,000) and (ii) the “standard deduction” amount (currently $6,300 for single and married filing jointly and $12,600 for married couples filing jointly).[8]

This is true, even if all of the income is earned income and eligible for the foreign earned income exclusion, which is $100,800 for the tax year 2015. [9]

Additionally, USCs living overseas necessarily have a U.S. tax return filing requirement, when they meet these low thresholds of gross income. In these cases, tax returns that are not filed by the 15^th of June are not considered timely filed.^[10]

II.           The Social Security Administration Rules Make it Nearly Impossible for Many USCs Overseas to Reasonably Obtain a SSN

The policy and procedures of the SSA regarding issuing SSNs have changed significantly over the years.^[11] The Social Security Administration (SSA) provides a detailed chronology of the major changes in policy and procedures regarding filing for and obtaining a SSN.^[12]   One of the most significant revisions in the last decade came from The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458), which imposes various standards for the verification of documents or records submitted by an individual.

A.            Only a Few Countries Around the World have Personnel at U.S. Embassies or Consulate Offices that Can Process SSN Applications – SSA Form SS-5-FS

Applying for SSNs overseas is severely restricted compared to an application in the U.S.

According to the U.S. Department of State, Foreign Affairs Manual (“FAM”), only certain “Claims-Taking Posts” in specific countries “may” include “processing applications for Social Security Numbers.” [13]

These 17 countries (and a city in the case of Jerusalem) with Claims-Taking Posts include:

“Austria, Argentina, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Jerusalem, Mexico, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom.”

Noticeably absent are many Western European countries, virtually all of Latin America, virtually all of Asia, virtually all of Eastern Europe, all of the Middle East (except Jerusalem), all of the African continent, all of the Australian continent and surrounding island countries and Russia, among many other significant countries, including OECD member countries.[14]

Nothing in the FAM requires any of these “Claims-Taking Posts” to actually process applications for a SSN. Plus, there are of course hundreds of other countries throughout the world, not listed above, which do not have such a U.S. Department of State Post. For these reasons, USCs in countries such as China must travel to a U.S. Department of State Post (e.g., the Philippines) which is able to process applications for SSNs.

B.            In Person Interview Required for Individuals Older than 11 Years Old

Individuals who are older than 11 years old must personally go to the U.S. Embassy or Consulate with a Claims-Taking Post.  See 7 FAM 530, pages 7, 12, 13 and 7 FAM EXHIBIT 530(D)   Mandatory In-Person Interview Worksheet SSN Applicant Age 12 or Older – Original SSN * * *

All of these rules makes you wonder whether foreign born individuals, such as actress Kim Cattrall from Sex & the City  fame would have ever obtained a social security number overseas while she lived in Canada or the UK.

[1] See, Treas. Reg. § 301.6109-1(a)(1)(ii)(A).

[2] See, Treas. Reg. § 301.6109-1(d)(1).

[3] See, Bloomberg article, 14 January 2015 by Kocieniewski, IRS Will Shut Last Overseas Taxpayer-Assistance Centers: “After budget reductions over the last four consecutive years, the IRS is forced to make tough choices during this period of fiscal austerity and these closures have relatively little impact on taxpayers and treaty partners,” said Julianne Breitbeil, an IRS spokeswoman. Also, see IRS website that still reflects the London and Paris offices as open http://www.irs.gov/uac/Contact-My-Local-Office-Internationally.

[4] See, SSA website, Service Around the World, http://www.ssa.gov/foreign/

[5] See, Treas. Reg. § 301.6109-1(d)(1).

[6] See discussion below, regarding requirements to obtain a SSN. I.II, I.I,The Social Security Administration Rules Make it Nearly Impossible for Many USCs Overseas to Reasonably Obtain a SSN

[7] See SSA website, “Office of International Operations” – http://www.ssa.gov/foreign/ “Service Around the World – Welcome to SSA’s Office of International Operations (OIO) home page. The purpose of this site is to assist Social Security customers who are outside the U.S. or planning to leave the U.S. OIO is responsible for administering the Social Security program outside the U.S. and for the implementation of the benefit provisions of international agreements. Since SSA has no offices outside the U.S., OIO is assisted by the Department of State’s embassies and consulates throughout the world.”

[8] See, IR-2014-104, Oct. 30, 2014 and IRS Publication 501.

[9] See, IRC § 911 and IRS Publication 54.

[10] See, Treas. Reg. § 1.6081-5.

[11] See, SSA website, The Story of the Social Security Number, by Carolyn Puckett, Social Security Bulletin, Vol. 69 NO. 2, 2009 (http://ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n2/v69n2p55.html.

[12] See, SSA website, Significant Milestones in Social Security Number Policy. A detailed chronology of the major changes in policy and procedures. http://www.ssa.gov/history/ssn/ssnchron.html.

[13] See 7 FAM 530, page 2 of 64.

[14] In contrast to these 17 countries (and one city – Jerusalem) where a USC residing overseas must travel to apply for a SSN, the Treasury Department has announced it has around 100 countries that have signed, or “have reached agreements in substance” a FATCA IGA. USCs throughout the world are required by the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (“FACTA”) to provide their U.S. TIN to financial institutions throughout the world (on IRS Form W-9, or its equivalent), which under current law necessarily must be a SSN. Of course, if they have no SSN, they cannot sign IRS Form W-9 which provides in Part II: “Under penalties of perjury, I certify that: 1. The number shown on this form is my correct taxpayer identification number . . .”

[15] See, 7 FAM 534.3 e.

U.S. Citizens Overseas who Wish to Renounce without a Social Security Number (“SSN”) will Necessarily be a “Covered Expatriate”

• The Dilemma of SSNs, TINs and USCs Residing Overseas

The prior post discussed some of the complications of United States Citizens (“USCs”) who reside outside the U.S. and do not have a social security number (“SSN”) .  This dilemma exists, even though USCs are not generally required to file for or obtain a SSN (e.g., at birth – See, SSA Publication – “Social Security Numbers For Children”  page 2, It is not obligatory to file for a SSN at birth. “Must my child have a Social Security number? No. Getting a Social Security number for your newborn is voluntary. But, it is a good idea to get a number when your child is born. . . . ).

Indeed, it is the U.S. federal tax law that requires the USC must have a SSN for their taxpayer identification number (“TIN”).  I will reference various excerpts from a recent paper I drafted and presented titled URGENT NEED FOR U.S. CITIZENS RESIDING OUTSIDE THE U.S. TO BE ABLE TO OBTAIN A TAXPAYER IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (“TIN”) OTHER THAN A SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER , including the following:

 . . . the IRS’ increased focus on international tax compliance has made clear that USCs residing overseas have U.S. tax return filing obligations, even if they have no assets, no income, or no real personal connections in or with the U.S. See IRS notice from 2011 which addresses numerous aspects of tax compliance for USCs overseas, including various penalties under the law^[1]:

. . . U.S. Citizens or Dual Citizens Residing Outside the U.S. . . .

The IRS is aware that some taxpayers who are dual citizens of the United States and a foreign country may have failed to timely file United States federal income tax returns or Reports of Foreign Bank and Financial Accounts (FBARs), despite being required to do so. . . . 2.  Penalties imposed for failure to file income tax returns or to pay tax . . .  3.  Possible additional penalties that may apply in particular cases . . . 6.  Possible penalties for failure to file FBAR . . . 7. New reporting requirement for foreign financial assets . . . [emphases added] 

USCs residing overseas are subject to the range of tax penalties that apply to all individual taxpayers (e.g., negligence penalties, failure to file penalties, late payment or failure to pay penalties, etc.).^[2] Additionally, USCs residing overseas are subject to other, typically much harsher penalties for not timely filing U.S. federal information returns regarding assets located outside the U.S.^[3]; alluded to above in the IRS 2011 notice.^[4] 

These civil penalties typically are a minimum of US$10,000 per statutory violation. USCs who live outside the U.S. necessarily have assets, such as financial accounts in their country of residence. These Title 26 information reporting requirements^[5] are referred to herein as “International Information Returns.”

The IRS will not process federal tax returns and International Information Returns without a valid TIN.^[6] Plus, the law does not provide for an exception for USCs overseas who do not file returns, if they do not have a SSN. Late filed, or incomplete International Information Returns and tax returns (e.g., lacking a SSN) will typically subject USCs to these penalties even in those cases when the taxpayer has no federal income tax liability.^[7]   

[1] See, IRS FS-2011-13, December 2011, updated February, 2014.

[2] See, IRS FS-2011-13 and as a sample of some of the many statutory penalties that could typically apply, IRC §§ 6048, 6652(f), 6677, 6654, 6655, 6698, 6699, 6166, 6653, 6675, 6715, 6715A, 6717, 6718, 6719, 6720A, 6725, et. seq.

[3] See, IRC §§ 6038, 6038B, 6038D, 6039F, 6039G, 6046, 6046A, 6048, et. seq.

[4] See, IRS FS-2011-13, December 2011, updated February, 2014.

[5] See, IRC §§ 6038, 6038B, 6038D, 6039F, 6039G, 6046, 6046A, 6048, et. seq.

[6] See, IRS website, “General ITIN Information” – http://www.irs.gov/Individuals/General-ITIN-Information – “IRS no longer accepts, and will not process, forms showing “SSA”, 205c”, “applied for”, “NRA”,& blanks, etc.”

[7] See, IRC §§ 911 (foreign earned income exclusion) and 901 (foreign tax credit), et. seq. A USC residing overseas may have no actual federal income tax liability (for various reasons), typically due to the foreign earned income exclusion and/or foreign tax credit calculation.

The above explains fairly clearly the dilemma facing USCs residing overseas.

The complexity of getting a SSN and the requirements are covered in more detail in the paper.  Some key points are:

I.              The Social Security Administration Rules Make it Nearly Impossible for Many USCs Overseas to Reasonably Obtain a SSN

The policy and procedures of the SSA regarding issuing SSNs have changed significantly over the years.^[1] The Social Security Administration (SSA) provides a detailed chronology of the major changes in policy and procedures regarding filing for and obtaining a SSN.^[2]   One of the most significant revisions in the last decade came from The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458), which imposes various standards for the verification of documents or records submitted by an individual.

A.            Only a Few Countries Around the World have Personnel at U.S. Embassies or Consulate Offices that Can Process SSN Applications – SSA Form SS-5-FS

Applying for SSNs overseas is severely restricted compared to an application in the U.S.

According to the U.S. Department of State, Foreign Affairs Manual (“FAM”), only certain “Claims-Taking Posts” in specific countries “may” include “processing applications for Social Security Numbers.” [3]

These 17 countries (and a city in the case of Jerusalem) with Claims-Taking Posts include:

“Austria, Argentina, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Jerusalem, Mexico, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom.”  

Noticeably absent are many Western European countries, virtually all of Latin America, virtually all of Asia, virtually all of Eastern Europe, all of the Middle East (except Jerusalem), all of the African continent, all of the Australian continent and surrounding island countries and Russia, among many other significant countries, including OECD member countries.[4] 

Nothing in the FAM requires any of these “Claims-Taking Posts” to actually process applications for a SSN. Plus, there are of course hundreds of other countries throughout the world, not listed above, which do not have such a U.S. Department of State Post. For these reasons, USCs in countries such as China must travel to a U.S. Department of State Post (e.g., the Philippines) which is able to process applications for SSNs.

[1] See, SSA website, The Story of the Social Security Number, by Carolyn Puckett, Social Security Bulletin, Vol. 69 NO. 2, 2009 (http://ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n2/v69n2p55.html.

[2] See, SSA website, Significant Milestones in Social Security Number Policy. A detailed chronology of the major changes in policy and procedures. http://www.ssa.gov/history/ssn/ssnchron.html.

[3] See 7 FAM 530, page 2 of 64.

[4] In contrast to these 17 countries (and one city – Jerusalem) where a USC residing overseas must travel to apply for a SSN, the Treasury Department has announced it has around 100 countries that have signed, or “have reached agreements in substance” a FATCA IGA. USCs throughout the world are required by the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (“FACTA”) to provide their U.S. TIN to financial institutions throughout the world (on IRS Form W-9, or its equivalent), which under current law necessarily must be a SSN. Of course, if they have no SSN, they cannot sign IRS Form W-9 which provides in Part II: “Under penalties of perjury, I certify that: 1. The number shown on this form is my correct taxpayer identification number . . .”

•  The Necessary “Covered Expatriate Status” of a USC without a SSN

The core point of this post, with the above SSN background, is to explain how a USC without a SSN will necessarily be a “covered expatriate” since they will not be able to truthfully certify they have complied with the federal tax laws (title 26).  See, Certification Requirement of Section 877(a)(2)(C) – (5 Years of Tax Compliance) and Important Timing Considerations per the Statute

As other posts have explained, “covered expatriate” status matters:

See, Why “covered expat” (“covered expatriate”) status matters, even if you have no assets! The “Forever Taint”! (20 May 2014) and The “Hidden Tax” of Expatriation – Section 2801 and its “Forever Taint.” (10 April 2014) and “Covered Expatriate” Status is a “Scarlet Letter” (10 Nov 2014).

If a USC has no SSN, they by definition will never be able to comply with the Certification Requirement of Section 877(a)(2)(C) since they will not be able to comply with IRC § 6109(a) and Treas. Reg. § 301.6109-1.  As the SSN/TIN paper explains:

 All United States citizens (“USCs”) must have a social security number (“SSN”) under current law as their TIN to file a federal income tax return.^[1]

[1] See, IRC § 6109(a) and Treas. Reg. § 301.6109-1.

The IRS will not process federal tax returns and “International Information Returns”, as defined below, without a valid TIN^[1]; which currently must be a SSN for a USC.

[1] See, IRS website, – http://www.irs.gov/Individuals/General-ITIN-Information – “IRS no longer accepts, and will not process, forms showing “SSA”, 205c”, “applied for”, “NRA”,& blanks, etc.”

A prior post identified the number of lawful permanent residents (LPRs) who file Form I-407 to formally abandon their lawful permanent residency.  See,  The Number of LPRs “Leaving” the U.S. is 16X Greater than the Number of U.S. Citizens Renouncing Citizenship

These numbers of I-407 forms filed annually were obtained through a freedom of Information Act (“FOIA”) request and provided by the USCIS.  See tabl:

Of course, this statistic does NOT identify the number of the approximate 13.3+ million LPRs who leave the U.S. to live elsewhere in another country without completing Form I-407 and formally abandoning.  The estimated number of LPRs was 13.3 million for the year 2012 as reported by the Office of Statistics of the DHS. See, Estimates of the Legal Permanent Resident Population in 2012.

Maybe the number of individuals who fall into this latter category (i.e., moving out of the U.S. without filing Form I-407) is several hundred of thousands of individuals annually?

Importantly, from a taxation perspective, anyone who moves and lives in a country with a U.S. income tax treaty (the list of these countries is set out below – from the IRS website), needs to be careful not to be deemed to be a “covered expatriate” due to the application of IRS Form 7701(b)(6).  See, IRS Notice 2009-85.

See, the following posts with further explanation of the tax law for LPRs who move and live in one of the countries listed below.  Countries with U.S. Income Tax Treaties & Lawful Permanent Residents (“Oops – Did I Expatriate”?)

See also, Who is a “long-term” lawful permanent resident (“LPR”) and why does it matter?

Becoming a “covered expatriate” has U.S. tax consequences not just to the “former long-term LPR”, but also to their family and friends who are “U.S. persons” (as defined under Section 7701.  See, The “Hidden Tax” of Expatriation – Section 2801 and its “Forever Taint.”

A

Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan

B

Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Bulgaria

C

Canada
China
Cyprus
Czech Republic

D

Denmark

E

Egypt
Estonia

F

Finland
France

G

Georgia
Germany
Greece

H

Hungary

I

Iceland
India
Indonesia
Ireland
Israel
Italy

J

Jamaica
Japan

K

Kazakhstan
Korea
Kyrgyzstan

L

Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg

M

Malta
Mexico
Moldova
Morocco

N

Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway

O

P

Pakistan
Philippines
Poland
Portugal

Q

R

Romania
Russia

S

Slovak Republic
Slovenia
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sweden
Switzerland

T

Tajikistan
Thailand
Trinidad
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan

U

Ukraine
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
United Kingdom
United States Model
Uzbekistan

V

Venezuela

More on “PFICs” and their Complications for USCs and LPRs Living Outside the U.S. – -(What if there are No Records?)

The statutory rules of PFICs are set forth in 26 U.S. Code § 1297 – Passive foreign investment company.  The U.S. Treasury and IRS also published new regulations in January 2014 on PFICs.

For an overview, see “PFICs” – What is a PFIC – and their Complications for USCs and LPRs Living Outside the U.S.

United States Citizens living overseas, whether or not they are “Accidental Americans”, as well as  lawful permanent residents (LPRs) living outside the U.S. generally have the burden of proof under U.S. tax law to show they complied with U.S. law.  Indeed, when the Internal Revenue Service (IRS – the U.S. revenue authority) makes a tax assessment against an individual, the law generally carries with it a “presumption of correctness” in favor of the IRS.

This presumption of correctness was confirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court and therefore imposes the burden on the taxpayer of proving that the assessment made by the IRS is erroneous.  During my career, I have seen plenty of erroneous assessments made by the IRS, and an increasing number of assessments made against taxpayers residing in countries throughout the world, be it France, Australia, Canada, Russia, Germany, Mexico, Thailand, Japan, Hong Kong, etc.

Why is this presumption of correctness relevant, when PFICs are explained and discussed here?  The law of PFICs is complex, to the point that very few IRS revenue agents really have any detailed understanding of how PFICs work, when they apply and how taxpayers are to report their investments in PFICs.  Very few U.S. tax practitioners understand PFICs.

Accordingly, I regularly see errors made by the IRS in proposed tax assessments, including PFIC calculations.  Unfortunately for the individual taxpayer, they must prove the IRS is wrong in its tax assessment.

PFICs create a real burden on individual taxpayers who have shares in a PFIC in different locations around the world, since it is rare that foreign companies, investment funds, mutual funds and the like ever provide any detailed accounting of (a) asset, or (b) income information (per U.S. tax rules) that are required to be reported by PFIC investors who are USCs or LPRs.

Unlike a controlled foreign corporation (CFC), a PFIC has no ownership threshold.  If a USC owns just 1,000 shares/units out of 20M issued shares in a foreign mutual fund, the U.S. citizen will nevertheless need to report this 1,000 share/unit interest (even though this is only 0.0005% of the fund) on his or her individual income tax return if the foreign mutual fund meets – the income test or asset test.  Virtually all mutual and investments funds will satisfy these tests, since by definition the funds are making investments in other companies or other passive income items, such as bonds, stocks, futures, ETFs, etc.

The income test is met when at least 75% of the income is passive income as defined under the law.  The asset test is satisfied when at least 50% of the foreign corporation’s average assets produce such passive income.

The practical problem arises when the individual taxpayer needs information from the fund (or other foreign entity) that reflects information such as –

• the pro-rata share of the “ordinary” earnings (in the example above, just 1,000 share/20M shares – 0.0005% of the fund);
• the pro-rata share of the “net capital gain”;
• the total cash or property distributed;
• the total cash or property “deemed” distributed (which means there was actually no distribution – but the law “deems” there to have been a distribution); and
• many other complex calculations that require basic information to be provided by the PFIC in the first place.

What foreign fund or investment company around the world (located in whatever country – catering to customers commonly in their own country) even tracks or accounts for income and gains for U.S. tax law purposes; i.e.  “ordinary” earnings versus “capital gains” – specifically including the netting of “capital gains” and “capital losses” as required by U.S. law?  I certainly do not see such accounting records provided in the marketplace of investment funds, hedge funds and companies that cater to persons residing outside the U.S.

Most foreign companies around the world (unless they are controlled and managed by USCs who are aware of these U.S. tax obligations) never maintain such accounting records or the detailed information necessary to even provide it to their USC or LPR investors.  Hence, USCs/LPR investors may never be able to accurate make these PFIC calculations.

Also, the ownership of shares/units of the fund might always be changing throughout the year.  In other words, even if the “ordinary income” and “net capital gain” is available for a particular fund/PFIC, the total number of outstanding shares/units has to be stable or known for the USC or LPR to calculate their pro-rata share.  In the above example, if there are 20M outstanding shares/units at the beginning of the year, but by the end of the year there are 22M outstanding shares/units, how is the USC or LPR investor ever going to be able to calculate their pro-rata share, assuming they have the “ordinary” earnings and “capital gains” amounts for the entire calendar year?  Its not simply the “ordinary” earnings and “capital gains” multiplied by 0.0005%.

The only “good news” in this explanation of PFICs, is that there is not an automatic US$10,000 penalty for failure to file their investments in a PFIC on IRS Form 8621, Information Return by a Shareholder of a Passive Foreign Investment Company or Qualified Electing Fund.

This is a departure from the normal rule of a minimum US$10,000 penalty for failure to file information returns regarding international (i.e., non-U.S. assets and investments).  See, USCs and LPRs Living Outside the U.S. – Key Tax and BSA Forms.

All of these tax compliance rules begs a very important question for a USC who is considering renouncing their U.S. citizenship.  The issue arises if they have had investments in PFICs during the last five years.  If the USC has not been complying with IRC Section 1297 regarding PFICs, how can the taxpayer ever certify under penalty of perjury ” . . . that he has met the requirements of this title for the 5 preceding taxable years. . . [for purposes of Section 877(a)(2)(C)]”?

See, Certification Requirement of Section 877(a)(2)(C) – (5 Years of Tax Compliance) and Important Timing Considerations per the Statute

More details about PFICs to come in later posts.

According to The Moscow Times, Putin Signs Last-Minute Law to Satisfy FATCA

With China and Russia as prior major holdouts, the recent news from both countries probably assures the long-term success of FATCA.

See, HUGE NEWS – China has “Reached an Agreement in Substance” for a FATCA Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) – its Affect on USCs and LPRs Living in China and Hong Kong

There are very few notable “hold-outs” on FATCA IGAs.  The following list reflects those countries of note (from my perspective) who have not signed or “reached an agreement in substance”:

Kenya

Nigeria

Egypt

Pakistan

Bahrain

Philippines

Malaysia

Guatemala

Uruguay

El Salvador

Nicaragua

Ecuador

Argentina

Venezuela

Lots of other countries with less commercial and financial ties to the U.S., did not  – including – countries such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Cambodia.

There are currently 90 countries identified by the U.S. Treasury as having an IGA or “reaching an agreement in substance” as follows (note there are fewer signed IGAs than unsigned):

Countries that have signed agreements:

Model 1 IGA

1)          Australia (4-28-2014)

2)          Belgium (4-23-2014)

3)          Canada (2-5-2014)

4)          Cayman Islands (11-29-2013)

5)          Costa Rica (11-26-2013)

6)          Denmark (11-19-2012)

7)          Estonia (4-11-2014)

8)          Finland (3-5-2014)

9)          France (11-14-2013)

10)       Germany (5-31-2013)

11)       Gibraltar (5-8-2014)

12)       Guernsey (12-13-2013)

13)       Hungary (2-4-2014)

14)       Honduras (3-31-2014)

15)       Ireland (1-23-2013)

16)       Isle of Man (12-13-2013)

17)       Italy (1-10-2014)

18)       Jamaica (5-1-2014)

19)       Jersey (12-13-2013)

20)       Latvia (6-27-2014)

21)       Liechtenstein (5-19-2014)

22)       Luxembourg (3-28-2014)

23)       Malta (12-16-2013)

24)       Mauritius (12-27-2013)

25)       Mexico (4-9-2014)

26)       Netherlands (12-18-2013)

27)       New Zealand (6-12-2014)

28)       Norway (4-15-2013)

29)       South Africa (6-9-2014)

30)       Spain (5-14-2013)

31)       Slovenia (6-2-2014)

32)       United Kingdom (9-12-2012)

Model 2 IGA (signed agreements)

33)       Austria (4-29-2014)

34)       Bermuda (12-19-2013)

35)       Chile (3-5-2014)

36)       Japan (6-11-2013)

37)       Switzerland (2-14-2013)

And those countries which are deemed to have “reached agreement in substance” –

Model 1 IGA

38)       Algeria (6-30-2014)

39)       Antigua and Barbuda (6-3-2014)

40)       Azerbaijan (5-16-2014)

41)       Bahamas (4-17-2014)

42)       Barbados (5-27-2014)

43)       Belarus (6-6-2014)

44)       Brazil (4-2-2014)

45)       British Virgin Islands (4-2-2014)

46)       Bulgaria (4-23-2014)

47)       China (6-26-2014)

48)       Colombia (4-23-2014)

49)       Croatia (4-2-2014)

50)       Curaçao (4-30-2014)

51)       Czech Republic (4-2-2014)

52)       Cyprus (4-22-2014)

53)       Dominica (6-19-2014)

54)       Dominican Republic (6-30-2014)

55)       Georgia (6-12-201)

56)       Greenland (6-29-2014)

57)       Grenada (6-16-2014)

58)       Guyana (6-24-2014)

59)       India (4-11-2014)

60)       Indonesia (5-4-2014)

61)       Israel (4-28-2014)

62)       Kosovo (4-2-2014)

63)       Kuwait (5-1-2014)

64)       Lithuania (4-2-2014)

65)       Panama (5-1-2014)

66)       Peru (5-1-2014)

67)       Poland (4-2-2014)

68)       Portugal (4-2-2014)

69)       Qatar (4-2-2014)

70)       Romania (4-2-2014)

71)       St. Kitts and Nevis (6-4-2014)

72)       St. Lucia (6-12-2014)

73)       St. Vincent and the Grenadines (6-2-2014)

74)       Saudi Arabia (6-24-2014)

75)       Seychelles (5-28-2014)

76)       Singapore (5-5-2014)

77)       Slovak Republic (4-11-2014)

78)       South Korea (4-2-2014)

79)       Sweden (4-24-2014)

80)       Thailand (6-24-2014)

81)       Turkey (6-3-2014)

82)       Turkmenistan (6-3-2014)

83)       Turks and Caicos Islands (5-12-2014)

84)       Ukraine (6-26-2014)

85)       United Arab Emirates (5-21-2014)

Model 2 IGA

86)       Armenia (5-8-2014)

87)       Hong Kong (5-9-2014)

88)       Moldova (6-30-2014)

89)       Paraguay (6-6-2014)

90)       Taiwan (6-23-2014)*

The U.S. has income tax treaties with multiple countries.  My post from yesterday briefly explains how a LPR living in one of these countries may become a “covered expatriate” if the three conditions of the statute, IRC Section 7701(b)(6) that was added into the law in 2008 are satisfied.  See, LPR status can be abandoned for tax purposes (since 2008 tax law changes) by merely leaving and moving outside the U.S. in some cases. Posted on April 28, 2014

Importantly, a LPR who resides in one of these countries where he or she has income tax residency in the treaty country, can inadvertently “expatriate” for U.S. federal income, estate, gift and inheritance taxes.  See, Oops…Did I “Expatriate” and Never Know It: Lawful Permanent Residents Beware! International Tax Journal, CCH Wolters Kluwer, Jan.-Feb. 2014, Vol. 40 Issue 1, p9

The list of those countries with income tax treaties are as follows and can be reviewed at IRS website:

A

Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan

B

Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Bulgaria

C

Canada
China
Cyprus
Czech Republic

D

Denmark

E

Egypt
Estonia

F

Finland
France

G

Georgia
Germany
Greece

H

Hungary

I

Iceland
India
Indonesia
Ireland
Israel
Italy

J

Jamaica
Japan

K

Kazakhstan
Korea
Kyrgyzstan

L

Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg

M

Malta
Mexico
Moldova
Morocco

N

Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway

P

Pakistan
Philippines
Poland
Portugal

R

Romania
Russia

S

Slovak Republic
Slovenia
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sweden
Switzerland

T

Tajikistan
Thailand
Trinidad
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan

U

Ukraine
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
United Kingdom
United States Model
Uzbekistan

V

Venezuela

Dual nationals who have lived almost all of their lives outside the U.S. routinely travel with their passport of their country of residence. 

They are typically not aware that they must have a U.S. passport to travel to the U.S. pursuant to a 2004 law, known as the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act.

There are many dual nationals living in countries throughout the world.  The statistics are a bit fuzzy as to the exact numbers.